Probability Sampling – In this sampling method the probability of each item in the universe to get selected for research is the same. Hence the sample collected through this method is totally random in nature. Therefore it is also known as Random Sampling.

Non-Probability Sampling – In this sampling method the probability of each item in the universe to get selected for research is not the same. Hence the sample collected through method is not random in nature. Therefore it is known as Non-random Sampling.

Sampling Methods/Sampling Techniques

Probability or Random Sampling Methods:

(1) Simple random sampling – This method simply involves the task selecting sampling units randomly out of the sampling frame. A researcher may use the following methods for selecting random samples – Lottery Method, Random Numbers, software etc.

There are two types of random sampling:

• SRSWR – Simple random sampling with replacement
• SRSWOR – Simple random sampling without replacement

(2) Stratified sampling – In this method a heterogeneous population is divided into different small sub-units, which are called stratas. These stratas are homogenous among themselves with respect to a certain factor or characteristic. Items or sampling units are randomly selected from these stratas that together make up the sample.

(3) Systematic sampling – In this type of sampling the first unit is selected randomly and then every K^th item on the source list is selected, which becomes the part of the sample. The value of K is determined by :

K = Total no. of units in population/No. of units in sample

The essence of this method is selection of random items from the source list at a specified interval from the selected unit, hence forming a system for selecting items. The Items may be arranged numerically, alphabetically or in an increasing or decreasing order and then a formula is applied to it.

(4) Cluster sampling – This method is used where the size of population is very large. In this method a homogeneous population is divided into smaller heterogeneous groups and then samples are drawn out at random from these heterogeneous groups. These heterogeneous groups are called clusters. All items belonging to the selected heterogeneous groups become the part of the sample.

(5) Area Sampling – If the clusters are divided on geographical basis, it is termed as area sampling.

(6) Multi-stage sampling – In multistage sampling, sampling is performed at more than 1 step or stage. At first stage units are selected by some random sampling method usually SRSWOR or Systematic sampling and at the second stage again some units are selected out of the previously selected units through some suitable method. It can be understood as an expansion of the cluster sampling method where instead of selecting the entire heterogeneous group, items are drawn randomly from each heterogeneous group to form a sample.

Non-Probability or Non-Random Sampling Methods

(1) Judgement sampling – In this method, the sampling units are chosen by the researcher on the basis of his or her own judgement. The research simply selects the sample which in his opinion will be best for the study.

(2) Quota sampling – In this method of sampling, quotas in form of reservation or percentage are established for different classes of population on the basis of age, gender, nationality etc. A sample is then drawn out on the basis of these quotas.

(3) Panel sampling – In this method regular surveys are taken by a researcher from a panel of experts of a particular domain through questionnaires or schedules. The panelists may or may not know about other during the research process.

(4) Convenience sampling – In convenience sampling, a researcher simply selects the sample and sampling units that are easily available and accessible. No extra efforts are taken by the researcher as he simply chooses the samples on the basis of convenience.

(5) Snowball sampling – This method is used in cases where the population to be studied is rare, therefore it is difficult to find good representative sampling units. In this method the researcher initially selects a sampling unit (a doctor, a musician, a cancer patient depending upon the study) based on his judgement and then starts taking further samples on the basis of directions/advice/referral provided by the first sampling unit.

The researcher starts by interviewing one person or small group of people and then asks them for references. He then collects data from the suggested people and asks them for references and the chain continues until an adequate sample is formed.  

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Population or Universe – It is the subject matter of research study. It refers to the entire group or population of something taken into consideration for the purpose of research. It may be finite or infinite.

Sample – A sample is that portion of the population which is critically analysed during a research study in order to make estimations or draw inferences about the entire population. A sample may be defined as a unit chosen from the entire population which represents all the features or characteristics of the entire population.

Sampling Unit – It refers to one item of a sample. It may be one unit of anything i.e. one consumer, one company, one state, one city etc.

Sampling Frame – The collection of all the items or units of a sample make up the sampling frame. It consists a list of all the items in a universe (only in case of finite universe, where it is possible to list down all items). 

Sampling Design – It is simply a plan for obtaining a sample out of a given population. It lays down a definite plan for obtaining a sample out of the entire universe in terms of sampling objectives, population, sample frame, sample size, sample unit, data collection  etc. It is determined before the step of data collection in order to obtain reliable, relevant and adequate information.

There are two ways in which information can be obtained for sampling:

• Census Survey – When the entire population or universe is taken into consideration for the purpose of research.
• Sample Survey – When only a part of population (sample) is studied.

Sample Size – It is the number of observations that form a sample i.e. the number of items that are selected from the entire population for the purpose of research that form a sample. It is denoted by n. The following points must be kept in mind while selecting a sample size:

• Optimum – It must be optimum in size – Not too large, nor too small.
• Representative – It must represent the entire population.
• Reliable – It must meet the parameters of interest of the research study.

Sampling Errors – It refers to the inaccuracy or errors in the process of collection, analysis and interpretation of sampling data.

Sampling errors arise due to two reasons:

• Systematic or biased or Non-sampling errors – These arise due to use of faulty procedures and techniques in making a sample and lack of experience in research.
• Unsystematic or unbiased or sampling errors – These arise due to the limitations of the sampling process.

Sampling Errors – Sampling errors arise as we study only a small portion of the entire population to draw inferences about the whole population. Hence, there are random variations in the sample values as compared to population values. However if we study the entire population it is believed that errors will be nil. This also means the larger the sample size the smaller the sampling error i.e. sampling error is inversely proportional to the size of sample.

Non-Sampling errors – These errors result due to the following reasons:

• Incorrect sampling frame or source list
• Incorrect data collection techniques
• Bias responses of respondents
• Non-responses and omission errors
• Errors in coding, tabulating, analysing data
• Lack of trained and qualified investigators

Types of Sampling

Probability Sampling – In this type of sampling the probability of each item in the universe to get selected for research is the same. Hence the sample collected through this method is totally random in nature.

Non-Probability Sampling – In this type of sampling the probability of each item in the universe to get selected for research is not the same. Hence the sample collected through method is not random in nature.

Also read: Methods/Techniques of Sampling

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Subject: Research Methodology/Business Research

Topic: Selection of a Research Problem

Topics Covered

*Need to formulate the research problem

*Steps in formulating the research problem

*How to identify the research problem

*Formulation of problem statement

*Formulating research question / hypotheses

*Identify research objectives

*Scope of research

*Expected outcome of research

The Research Idea

*Everyday life (Professional experience)

*Practical issues (Burning questions)

*Past research/Literature (Research often generates more questions, Disagreements among studies can lead to worthwhile research)

*Professional meetings

*Discussions

Research Topics

*Observations

*Behaviors

*Concepts

*Theories

*Testing of assessment and intervention strategies

Narrowing the research topic

*Idea

*Brainstorming

*Literature review

*Identify the variables for study

*Formulate research problems and questions/hypotheses

Main Requirement

*You need to have an inquisitive and imaginative mind

*You need a Questioning attitude

*Wonder why?

Answer the following preliminary questions

*Is the problem/topic significant enough?

*Is it feasible (practical/possible for me to do it)?

*Is it free of unknown hazards/dangers?

*Is it clear (unambiguous)?

Actively involve yourself in NARROWING & REFINEMENT of the problem

*Narrowing the focus

*Population

*Situation (time, condition, subject availability, researcher’s readiness, resources available, etc.)

*Measurements

*Issue(s) dealt with?

*Setting the scope of the problem (“this is my line…I won’t go beyond it…”)

Slide 10 – Selection of a research problem

Rifle Vs Shotgun Analogy

Characteristics of good topics?

1.Interesting – keeps the researcher interested in it throughout the research process

2.Researchable – can be investigated through the collection and analysis of data

3.Significant – contributes to the improvement and understanding of educational theory and practice

4.Manageable – fits the level of researcher’s level of research skills, needed resources, and time restrictions

5.Ethical – does not embarrass or harm participants

A Research Question Must Identify

1.The variables under study

2.The population being studied

3.The testability of the question

Examples of good research problems (in the form of questions)

*Does client-centered therapy produce more satisfaction in clients than traditional therapy? (experimental design)

*Does behavior modification reduce aggression in autistic children? (single-subject experimental design)

*Are the descriptions of people in social studies discussions biased? (grounded theory design)

*What goes on in an elementary school classroom during an average week? (ethnographic design)

*Do teachers behave differently toward students of different genders? (causal-comparative design)

*How do parents feel about the school counseling program? (survey design)

*How can a principal improve faculty morale? (interview design)

Your research problem

*What is your area of interest?

*Where could you look for help in deciding upon a specific research problem?

*What criteria will you apply when deciding upon a specific research problem?

*How could you narrow down your research problem?

*How might your value-judgments (preconceived ideas) affect your research endeavors?

Slide 14 – Selection of a Research Problem

What is a research question ?

It is a statement that identifies the phenomenon to be studied

REASONS WHY RESEARCH QUESTIONS ARE CRUCIAL

*GUIDE YOUR LITERATURE SEARCH

*GUIDE YOUR DECISIONS ABOUT THE KIND OF RESEARCH DESIGN TO EMPLOY

*GUIDE YOUR DECISIONS ABOUE WHAT DATA TO COLLECT AND FROM WHOM

*GUIDE ANALYSIS OF YOUR DATA

*GUIDE WRITING-UP OF YOUR DATA

*STOP YOU FROM GOING OFF IN UNNECESSARY DIRECTIONS

Steps in formulating the research questions

Ask these questions –

Do I known the field and its literature well?

What are the important research questions in my field?

What areas need further exploration?

Could my study fill a gap? Or lead to greater understanding?

Has a great deal of research already been conducted in this topic area?

Has this study been done before? If so, is there room for improvement?

Is the timing right for this question to be answered? Is it a hot topic, or is it becoming obsolete?

Will the study have a significant impact on the field?

Research Questions and Hypotheses

A process of asking a question, or a series of related questions, and then initiating a systematic procedure to obtain valid answers to that question.

Formulating research question / hypotheses

*A well-thought-out and focused research question leads directly to your hypotheses.

*Hypotheses are more specific predictions about the nature and direction of the relationship between two variables.

*Hypotheses,

*Gives insight into a research question

*Are testable and measurable by the proposed experiments

*Each hypothesis is matched with a specific aim and has rationale.

Directional vs. Non-Directional Hypotheses

*Directional hypothesis

*Specifies the direction of the relationship between independent and dependent variables

*Non-directional hypothesis

*Shows the existence of a relationship between variables but no direction is specified

Slide 20 – Selection of a Research Problem

Research objectives:

The objectives pursued in order to answer the research questions.

Scope of Research Masters vs PhD

*Amount of research work

*Standard of writing

*Level of independency

Expected outcome of research

RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE

State clearly why this research is important, what the benefits will be and how your work will contribute to knowledge in your field. This may include commercial benefits, changes in current practice, a new perspective on an old issue or other benefits to the community.

You need to indicate why it is significant and how it advances understanding of the issues under discussion.

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In this method a questionnaire is sent (mailed) to the concerned respondents who are expected to read, understand and reply on their own and return the questionnaire. It consists of a number of questions printed on typed in a definite order on a form on set of forms.

It is advisable to conduct a `Pilot study’ which is the rehearsal of the main survey by experts for testing the questionnaire for weaknesses of the questions and techniques used.

Main aspects of the Questionnaire –

1.General form – It can be structured or unstructured. Structured questionnaires are those in which there are definite, concrete and pre-determined questions. The form of questions may be closed, open or multiple choice questions. In an unstructured questionnaire all these characteristics are missing, the interviewer is given a guide on the type of info to be obtained and the formulation of questions is done by his own experience and the replies are taken down in respondents own words.
2.Question sequence – A proper sequence of questions reduces the chance of individual questions being misunderstood. To make the questionnaire effective the question – sequence must be clean and smoothly moving (the relation of one question to another should be readily apparent). The opening question should be such as to erose human interest. Questions relating to personal wealth or character, or questions putting strain on the memory of the respondent should be avoided at first.The question sequence must conform to the respondents’ way of thinking. It should go from general to more specific or from easy to answer to the toughest.

3.Question formulation and working – All questions should meet the following standards –
-Should be easily understood
-Should be simple
-Should be concrete
-Should be impartial
-Should conform to the respondents way of thinking

Concerning the form of questions, they can be of three types –

-Open-end questions – where the respondent has to answer subjectively in his own words.
-Closed questions – `Yes’ and `No’ type questions.
-Multiple choice questions – the respondents have to choose one of the alternative answers put to him.

Open end questions permit a free response while a multiple choice question provides alternative replies and may force out an opinion even when the respondent in fact does not have an opinion.

Proper attention to the workings of questions must be given. Simple words, familiar to the respondent must be employed and words with ambiguous meanings must be avoided. Similarly, danger words, catchy words or words with emotional connotations must be avoided.

Essentials of a good questionnaire –

–It should be short and simple
–Questions should proceed in a logical sequence
–Technical terms and vague expressions must be avoided.
–Control questions to check the reliability of the respondent must be present
–Adequate space for answers must be provided
–Brief directions with regard to filling up of questionnaire must be provided.
–The physical appearances – quality of paper, colour etc must be good to attract the attention of the respondent.

Advantages –

⦁ Free from bias of interviewer
⦁ Respondents have adequate time to give
⦁ Respondents have adequate time to give answers
⦁ Respondents are easily and conveniently approachable
⦁ Large samples can be used to be more reliable

Limitations –

⦁ Low rate of return of duly filled questionnaire
⦁ Control over questions is lost once it is sent
⦁ It is inflexible once sent
⦁ Possibility of ambiguous or omission of replies
⦁ Time taking and slow process

You Might Also Want To Read :Collection of Primary and Secondary Data, Other Methods of Data Collection

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There are two types of data Primary Data and Secondary Data →

1.Primary Data → Raw data or primary data is a term for data collected at source. This type of information is obtained directly from first hand sources by means of surveys, observations and experimentation and not subjected to any processing or manipulation and also called primary data.
2.Secondary Data → It refers to the data collected by someone other than the user i.e. the data is already available and analysed by someone else. Common sources of secondary data include various published or unpublished data, books, magazines, newspaper, trade journals etc.

Collection of Primary Data →

Primary data is collected in the course of doing experimental or descriptive research by doing experiments, performing surveys or by observation or direct communication with respondents. Several methods for collecting primary data are given below –

1.Observation Method

It is commonly used in studies relating to behavioural science. Under this method observation becomes a scientific tool and the method of data collection for the researcher, when it serves a formulated research purpose and is systematically planned and subjected to checks and controls.

(a) Structured (descriptive) and Unstructured (exploratory) observation – When a observation is characterized by careful definition of units to be observed, style of observer, conditions for observation and selection of pertinent data of observation it is a structured observation. When there characteristics are not thought of in advance or not present it is a unstructured observation.

(b) Participant, Non-participant and Disguised observation – When the observer observes by making himself more or less, the member of the group he is observing, it is participant observation but when the observer observes by detaching himself from the group under observation it is non participant observation. If the observer observes in such a manner that his presence is unknown to the people he is observing it is disguised observation.

(c) Controlled (laboratory) and Uncontrolled (exploratory) observation – If the observation takes place in the natural setting it is a uncontrolled observation but when observer takes place according to some pre-arranged plans, involving experimental procedure it is a controlled observation.

Advantages →

⦁ Subjective bias is eliminated
⦁ Data is not affected by past behaviour or future intentions
⦁ Natural behaviour of the group can be recorded
Limitations →

⦁ Expensive methodology
⦁ Information provided is limited
⦁ Unforeseen factors may interfere with the observational task

2.Interview Method

This method of collecting data involves presentation of oral verbal stimuli and reply in terms of oral – verbal responses. It can be achieved by two ways :-

(A) Personal Interview – It requires a person known as interviewer to ask questions generally in a face to face contact to the other person. It can be –

Direct personal investigation – The interviewer has to collect the information personally from the services concerned.

Indirect oral examination – The interviewer has to cross examine other persons who are suppose to have a knowledge about the problem.

Structured Interviews – Interviews involving the use of pre- determined questions and of highly standard techniques of recording.

Unstructured interviews – It does not follow a system of pre-determined questions and is characterized by flexibility of approach to questioning.

Focused interview – It is meant to focus attention on the given experience of the respondent and its effect. The interviewer may ask questions in any manner or sequence with the aim to explore reasons and motives of the respondent.

Clinical interviews – It is concerned with broad underlying feeling and motives or individual’s life experience which are used as method to ellict information under this method at the interviewer direction.

Non directive interview – The interviewer’s function is to encourage the respondent to talk about the given topic with a bare minimum of direct questioning.

Advantages –

⦁ More information and in depth can be obtained
⦁ Samples can be controlled
⦁ There is greater flexibility under this method
⦁ Personal information can as well be obtained
⦁ Mis-interpretation can be avoided by unstructured interview.

Limitations –

⦁ It is an expensive method
⦁ Possibility of bias interviewer or respondent
⦁ More time consuming
⦁ Possibility of imaginary info and less frank responses.
⦁ High skilled interviewer is required

(B) Telephonic Interviews – It requires the interviewer to collect information by contacting respondents on telephone and asking questions or opinions orally.
Advantages –

⦁ It is flexible, fast and cheaper than other methods
⦁ Recall is easy and there is a higher rate of response
⦁ No field staff is required.

Limitations –

⦁ Interview period exceed five minutes maximum which is less
⦁ Restricted to people with telephone facilities.
⦁ Questions have to be short and to the point
⦁ Less information can be collected.

3.Questionnaire

In this method a questionnaire is sent (mailed) to the concerned respondents who are expected to read, understand and reply on their own and return the questionnaire. It consists of a number of questions printed on typed in a definite order on a form on set of forms.

It is advisable to conduct a `Pilot study’ which is the rehearsal of the main survey by experts for testing the questionnaire for weaknesses of the questions and techniques used.

Essentials of a good questionnaire –

-It should be short and simple

-Questions should proceed in a logical sequence

-Technical terms and vague expressions must be avoided.

-Control questions to check the reliability of the respondent must be present

-Adequate space for answers must be provided

-Brief directions with regard to filling up of questionnaire must be provided

-The physical appearances – quality of paper, colour etc must be good to attract the attention of the respondent

Advantages –

⦁ Free from bias of interviewer
⦁ Respondents have adequate time to give
⦁ Respondents have adequate time to give answers
⦁ Respondents are easily and conveniently approachable
⦁ Large samples can be used to be more reliable

Limitations –

⦁ Low rate of return of duly filled questionnaire
⦁ Control over questions is lost once it is sent
⦁ It is inflexible once sent
⦁ Possibility of ambiguous or omission of replies
⦁ Time taking and slow process

4.Schedules

This method of data collection is similar to questionnaire method with the difference that schedules are being filled by the enumerations specially appointed for the purpose. Enumerations explain the aims and objects of the investigation and may remove any misunderstanding and help the respondents to record answer. Enumerations should be well trained to perform their job, he/she should be honest hard working and patient. This type of data is helpful in extensive enquiries however it is very expensive.

Collection of Secondary Data

A researcher can obtain secondary data from various sources. Secondary data may either be published data or unpublished data.

Published data are available in :

a. Publications of government
b. technical and trade journals
c. reports of various businesses, banks etc.
d. public records
e. statistical or historical documents.

Unpublished data may be found in letters, diaries, unpublished biographies or work.

Before using secondary data, it must be checked for the following characteristics –

1. Reliability of data – Who collected the data? From what source? Which methods? Time? Possibility of bias? Accuracy?

2.Suitability of data – The object, scope and nature of the original enquiry must be studies and then carefully scrutinize the data for suitability.

3.Adequacy – The data is considered inadequate if the level of accuracy achieved in data is found inadequate or if they are related to an area which may be either narrower or wider than the area of the present enquiry.

After Reading Primary and Secondary Data Collection

You Might Also Like To Read : Other Methods Of Data Collection

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There are many methods for data collection other than Observation, Interview,Questionnaire and Schedules.

Other Methods for Data Collection

(a) Warranty Cards – It is a method for data collection in which postal size cards are used by dealers of consumer durables to collect info regarding their product. Information needed is printed in form of questions on the card and placed inside the package along with the product to be filled a posted back by the customer.

(b) Distribution or Store audits – Distributions get the retail stores audited through salesman and use such info to estimate market size, market share, purchasing pattern etc. The data obtained in such audits is by observation.

(c ) Pantry audits – In this type of audit, the investigator collects an inventory of types, quantities and prices of commodities consumed. It is used to estimate consumption of the basket of goods at the consumer level.

(d) Consumer Panels – It is essentially a sample of consumers who are interviewed repeatedly over a period of time. Transitory consumer panel – panel is conducted on a before and after basis. Continuing consumer panel – it is set up for an indefinite period with a view to collect data on a particular aspect of consumer behaviour over time.

(e) Mechanical devices – It is the use of mechanical devices to collect information by way of indirect means. Some commonly used mechanical devices are – eye camera, pupilometric camera, motion picture camera, psycho galvanometer and audio meter.

(f) Projective techniques – It uses projections of respondents for inferring about underlying motives, urges or intentions which respondents resist. The respondent unconsiously supplies information to project his own attitudes and feelings. Important projective techniques –

→ Work association test – It is used to extract information regarding such words which have maximum association
→ Sentence completion tests – In these the respondent is asked to complete a sentence
→ Story completion test – Respondent is expected to conclude or end a story or complete it.
→ Verbal projection test – Respondent is asked to comment on or explain what other people do.
→ Pictorial techniques – Respondent is asked to comment on graphics, images, pictures etc.
→ Thematic apperception test (T.A.T.) – consists of set of regular pictures that are shown to the respondent and asked to describe what they think the picture represents.
→ Rosensweig test – uses a cartoon format with words inserted in `balloons’ the respondent is asked to fill the empty balloons in his own words.
→ Rorschach test – consists of 10 cards having symmetrical but meaning less prints of ink bolt. Responses are interpreted on the basis of some pre-determined psychological framework.

→ Haltsman Inkbolt test – consists of movement, shading etc. Responses are interpreted for knowing the accuracy of data, emotional needs and dynamic aspect of respondents life.
→ Tomkins – Horn picture arrangement test – It consists of 25 plates, each containing three sketches that may be arranged in different ways to potray a sequence.

f) Play technique – subjects are asked to improvise or act out a situation in which they have been assigned various roles.

g) Quizzes, tests and examinations – Memorising and analytical abilities of candidates.
h) Sociometry – Technique for describing social relationships among individuals in a group.

i) Depth Interviews – they are held to explore needs, desired and feelings and discover underlying motives or intentions of the respondent. It requires great skill by the interviewer and is time consumable. It may be projective or non-projective interview on the basis of the nature of questions asked.

j) Content analysis – It consists of analysing the contents of documentary materials such as books, magazines, newspapers and the contents of all other verbal materials which can be either spoken or printed.

You Might Also Like To Read : Collection of Primary and Secondary Data

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